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According to the National Policing Institute, the paradigm of evidence-based policing (EBP) followed the concepts of evidence-based medicine (EBM), which was adopted as standard professional practice in the early 1990s. EBP involves not only conducting research but also actively translating and implementing research findings into practical guidelines and strategies. This approach aims to enhance the overall effectiveness, accountability and transparency of law enforcement practices while ensuring they are tailored to the specific needs of diverse communities. The American Society of Evidence-Based Policing (ASEBP), first established in 2015, explains that the concept of EBP states that police practices should be based upon scientific evidence about what works best and that evidence should be used to guide and evaluate police performance.
From the ASEBP website: “Those of us who have taken an oath to protect and serve must ensure that we are doing the best we can to provide the most efficient and effective services. In order to provide those services, we have a responsibility to ensure that the tactics and methods we use have been tested and shown to work toward our common goals. Anything less is simply unacceptable.”
About 43% of U.S. police chiefs hold bachelor’s degrees, and 28% hold two-year associate degrees.
When August Vollmer, the criminal justice pioneer, opened the Berkeley Police School in 1908, the concept of providing new law enforcement recruits with instruction on fundamental policing skills was considered quite revolutionary. Since the establishment of that first U.S. police academy, the concept of formal training for cops has become a widespread, accepted concept that is considered an indispensable element of American policing. At present, there are about 3,600 police academies across the U.S., in addition to another 4,000 undergraduate and graduate criminal justice-oriented programs of various types offered by America’s colleges and universities.
Generally, America’s 18,000 police agencies require at least a high school diploma for new recruits, who account for about 35% of U.S. law enforcement personnel, according to career experts Zippia. Increasingly, new hires are joining their agencies with a two-year college degree, or they may continue to pursue higher education while on the job, so those with at least an associate
degree currently comprise some 56% of America’s rank-and-file policing personnel, while less than 10% hold a four-year bachelor’s degree, and the percentage of those who hold a master’s or doctoral degrees are negligible. About 43% of U.S. police chiefs hold bachelor’s degrees, and 28% hold two-year associate degrees.
Beyond the various levels of education, which may be obtained through colleges and universities, in addition to the police academies — which are often housed within regional community colleges — there are also a wide variety of professional certification programs available from a diverse assortment of governmental agencies and other legitimate authoritative institutions, often operated by or associated with professional law enforcement agencies, such as the FBI, the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) and other such organizations.
While there is a general structure to the chain of command in all law enforcement organizations, it’s important to note that specific titles and duties may vary among different police departments and agencies. Here is a typical hierarchy found in many law enforcement organizations, listed from the lowest to the highest ranks:
- Police officer/deputy sheriff/trooper: Entry-level position, responsible for day-to-day law enforcement duties
- Detective/investigator: Investigates crimes, gathers evidence and works on cases that may not involve immediate, on-the-street law enforcement
- Sergeant: Supervisory-level rank, often responsible for leading a team of officers or overseeing a specific unit
- Lieutenant: Typically responsible for overseeing multiple units or a division within a department
- Captain: Often in charge of a large division or bureau within a department
- Major/inspector: This rank may be responsible for overseeing several divisions or specialized units
- Deputy chief/assistant chief: Second-in-command in larger departments, responsible for assisting the chief in managing the day-to-day operations
- Chief of police/sheriff/commissioner: The highest-ranking officer in a police department or sheriff’s office, responsible for the overall administration and leadership of the organization, most often appointed by local governmental representatives or by winning an election. Zippia tells us that there are currently just under 4,000 police chiefs employed in the U.S.
While not all law enforcement agencies use the same titles, and there may be variations in the hierarchy, the structure may also differ between federal, state and local police departments. Rising up through the ranks to attain leadership positions in a law enforcement agency generally requires seniority, along with demonstrated on-the-job skills, at the very least.
In the wake of several highly publicized and socially disruptive police shooting cases over the past few years — notably, Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, George Floyd in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and Breonna Taylor in Louisville, Kentucky — there has been a growing emphasis and interest in crafting more effective and evidence-based training programs for leadership and executive personnel within America’s law enforcement. These initiatives aim to enhance supervisory skills with the expectation that such improvements will contribute to better overall outcomes for the agencies and their communities.
A recent report by the Police Executive Research Forum (PERF), an independent nonprofit research organization that focuses on critical issues in law enforcement, shows significant gaps in evidence-based policing compared to international models of police training that tend to place a stronger emphasis on de-escalation techniques and community-oriented policing.
In releasing the report, PERF Director Chuck Wexler noted that there are no national standards in U.S. policing and training standards are outdated and inconsistent, often providing training that is too brief, with an emphasis on weapons and tactics and too little focus on decision-making, communications and other critical-thinking skills that officers use every day.
“Almost every major aspect of policing has fundamentally changed in recent decades,” Wexler stated. “Many officers are taught things like survival training, officer safety and all of those kinds of things, which don’t necessarily meet today’s needs.”
EBP requires that the agency leadership personnel not only be familiar with what is and what is not evidence-based and relevant to their own communities, but they also need to stay on top of developments and practices that have been shown to be effective and lead to more positive results. Issues such as cultural and ethnic sensitivity, person-first approaches in critical incidents and community-oriented policing require a lot more attention training.
The International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) offers numerous forward-thinking, evidence-based training programs, such as Leadership in Police Organizations (LPO), a three-week course in a classroom setting, using video, roleplaying and case studies to teach various behavioral science theories to bring about positive changes in law enforcement agencies.
The Law Enforcement Supervisors Leadership Training Program (LESLTP) is offered by the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC), focusing on “human capital development disciplines” and emphasizing communications, understanding, conflict management and other personnel management skills. Participants learn about the Dominance, Inducement/Influence, Submission/Steadiness, Compliance (DISK) behavioral assessment tool and how to employ it in a law enforcement culture. This eight-day course also includes public speaking, wellness, conflict management, ethical and moral behavior, and leading to bring about change. The Southern Police Institute offers a 12-week, in-residence Administrative Officers Course (AOC), which includes problem-solving, administrative law and ethical issues, among others.
While there will always be a place for academies and in-class instruction, law enforcement leadership personnel also have a wide variety of learning opportunities via the internet, such as those offered by InTime, an organization that designs sophisticated and relevant software programs focusing on such issues as transformational leadership, described as a “people-first” approach where police supervisors collaborate with subordinates to create an environment that encourages innovation and shared goals for the organization, rather than the old school “top-down” management style.
Among the proliferation of such programs, the Center for Evidence-Based Crime Policy (CEBCP) and the Center for Justice Leadership and Management (CJLM) at George Mason University represent the kind of ongoing education that today’s law enforcement supervisors require, such as the daylong seminar they’ve offered entitled Evidence-Based Policing Leadership Training for Supervisors.
Given the numerous serious and longstanding issues in today’s policing landscape across the U.S., more than ever, it is incumbent upon “the brass” to stretch the limits of their comfort zone and learn how to better adopt and support evidence-based policing.
Dr. Gene Ira Katz, DMCJ
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